Distinguishing between Data, Information, and Knowledge |
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Data - symbols or facts out of context, and thus not directly
nor immediately meaningful
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Information - data placed within some interpretive context, and
thus acquiring meaning and value
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Knowledge - meaningfully structured accumulation of information;
information that is relevant, actionable, and based at least partially
on experience
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Distinguishing between Explicit and Tacit Knowledge1 |
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Explicit knowledge - can be formally articulated or encoded;
can be more easily transferred or shared; is abstract and removed from
direct experience
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Tacit knowledge - knowledge-in-practice; developed from direct
experience and action; highly pragmatic and situation specific;
subconsciously understood and applied; difficult to articulate;
usually shared through highly interactive conversation and shared
experience.
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Application of Tacit
Knowledge in Innovation2 |
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Problem solving - experts, as
opposite to novices, can solve a problem more readily as they have in
mind a pattern born of experience, which they can overlay on a
particular problem and use to quickly detect a solution
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Problem finding - linking a
general sense of intellectual or existential unease to
radical
innovation: creative problem framing allows the rejection
of the "obvious" answer to a problem in favor of asking a wholly
different question. Intuitive discovery is often not simply an answer
to the specific problem but an insight into its real nature.
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Tacit Knowledge as a
Source of Competitive Advantage |
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Barriers to the
Sharing of Tacit Knowledge2 |
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Hierarchies, when they implicitly
assume wisdom accrues to those with the most impressive organizational
titles
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Strong preferences for analysis over
intuition discouraging employees to offer ideas without
"hard facts" to back it up
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Penalties for failure discouraging
experimentation
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Strong preferences for a particular type of
communication within working groups
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Fear of failing to express the inexpressible
when trying to convert tacit knowledge into explicit one
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Inequality in status among the participants
is a strong inhibitor for tacit knowledge sharing, especially when
exacerbated by different frameworks for assessing information
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Uneasiness of expressing emotional life
experiences rather than intellectual disagreements
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Distance, both physical separation
and time
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Tacit Knowledge as a Source of Competitive Advantage
Tacit knowledge underlies many competitive capabilities. The
experience, stored as as tacit knowledge, often reaches consciousness in the
form of insights, intuitions, and flashes of inspiration. The
marvelous capacity of your mind to make sense of your previous collection of
experiences and to connect patterns from the past to the present and future
is essential to the innovation process. "The creativity necessary for
innovation derives not only from obvious and visible expertise, but from
invisible reservoirs of experience."1
Tacit knowledge, or implicit knowledge, as opposite to explicit
knowledge, is far less tangible and
is deeply embedded into an organization's operating practices. It is often
called 'organizational culture'. "Tacit knowledge includes relationships, norms,
values, and standard operating procedures. Because tacit knowledge is much
harder to detail, copy, and distribute, it can be a sustainable source of
competitive
advantage... What increasingly differentiates success and failure is how
well you locate, leverage, and blend available explicit knowledge with
internally generated tacit knowledge."3
Inaccessible from explicit expositions, tacit knowledge is
protected from competitors unless key individuals are hired away.
Innovation Process: Diversion
and Conversion of Ideas
"The process of innovation is a rhythm of search and selection,
exploration and synthesis, cycles of divergent thinking followed by convergence".2
Divergence, or creative synthesis, is the interlocking of
previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. The creation of such
intellectual ferment is important to innovation - the more options offered, the
more likely that an out-of-the-box perspective will be available for selection.
Just hearing a very different perspective challenges the mindset of others
sufficiently that they will search beyond what initially appears to be an
obvious solution. This is a reason that intellectually heterogeneous
cross-functional teams are more innovative than homogenous functional ones.
As soon as a sufficient choice of innovative ideas has been
generated, a solution - convergence upon acceptable action - needs to be defined
and agreed upon. Confining the discussion here to managing the tacit dimensions
of knowledge three types of tacit knowledge - overlapping specific, collective,
and guiding - need to be managed.
Managing Tacit Knowledge
Managing tacit knowledge is a significant challenge in the
business world - and it requires more than mere awareness of barriers.
During the new idea generation - divergent thinking - phase,
people create a wealth of possible solutions to a problem. "Chaos succeeds
in creating newness because it takes place in a system that is non-linear".4 In a well-managed
development process, where a group of diverse individuals addresses a common
challenge, varying perspectives foster creative abrasion, intellectual
conflict between diverse viewpoints producing energy that is channeled into
new ideas.1
Mechanisms by which collective tacit knowledge is created and tapped
include:
Brainstorming -
gathering together a set of experts with diverse skills, preferably
including client representatives. Main rules to be followed during the idea
generation phase: defer judgments; build on the ideas of others; one
conversation at one time; stay focused on the topic; and think outside the
box - encourage wild ideas. All ideas should be recorded and discussed
during the selection - convergent thinking - phase.
In large organizations that are conceived as a collective of
communities, separate community perspectives can be amplified by
interchanges in order to increase divergent thinking. "Out of this friction
of competing ideas can come the sort of improvisational sparks necessary for
igniting organizational innovation".1
Managers and innovation team leaders can use tacit knowledge
to aid convergent thinking by creating guiding visions and concepts for
teams involved in innovation.
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